Volume 12 of W. Ross Ashby's Journal
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1949



Volume 12



2696+03	2696+04


Summary: Better definition of a system which shows extinction of its conditioned reflex. (Continued over)
2697	2698

The Conditioned Reflex [25]: Mechanism for conditioned reflex of second order, 2699. Unsolved problems [7]: Can the secondary conditional reflex of 2699 be demonstrated?
Summary: A possible mechanism for conditioned reflexes of the second order. Oddments [21]: A slight tendency in the central nervous system can easily be magnified to a large and complete change, 2700.
2699	2700

Summary: A slight tendency within the nervous system can easily be magnified to a maximal change in the effectors.
Arc algebra for arcs Stimulus algebra of compound stimulus Stimulus compound
2701	2702

Summary: We must distinguish in a conditioned reflex experiment between the pattern represented by the experimenter's controls and the pattern of what arrives at the cortex.
Summary: Example of preceeding section.
2703	2704



2705	2706



2707	2708


Summary: A system for relating stimuli given to arcs activated.
2709	2710



2711	2712

Natural Selection [8]: The effect of selection on the distribution of a statistic 2713.
Summary: The effects of selection on the distribution of a statistic.
2713	2714


Summary: Numerical example of the solution of [x'=Ax] by x=e^tAx⁰.
2715	2716

Laplace transformation example
Summary: Example of equations solved by Laplace transformations.
2717	2718

1950

Organisation number of Organisation number of types of

2719	2720


Summary: An enumeration of the possible types of organisation. Summarised 2736
2721	2722



2723	2724

Summary: In a given absolute system, if n-1 variables follow a given line of behaviour and the initial state of the n-th is given, then the behaviour of the n-th is also determined. 5051

2725	2726

Summary: Predicting behaviour of unobservable variables. (Continued 2732)

2727	2728

Oddments [22]: Binary counters with feedback 2729.

2729	2730

Summary: Binary counters.
Oddments [23]: Another way of getting information about unobservable variables, 2732.
2731	2732


Summary: A new way of getting information about unobservable variables in an absolute system. 5051 Epistemology [4]: A way of getting information about unobserved variables 2734.
2733	2734


Summary: Examples. Organisation number of
2735	2736

Summary: The ways of organising classified and tabulated.

2737	2738



2739	2740

Summary: Proof of an entry in the previous section. Civil Service Greave's book

2741	2742

Feudal system civil service still is feudal system Society [29]: Civil service, Greave's book on, feudal structure of, dispersion in, my suggestions for, 2743.

2743	2744


Summary: Organisation of a civil service. 2888, 2828, 4245
2745	2746

The Conditioned Reflex [26]: Conditioned reflex demonstrated on the homeostat, 2747, 2762.

2747	2748


Forcing a variable forcing homeostat Homeostat shows conditioned reflex Reflex, conditioned on homeastat
2749	2750



2751	2752

Summary: A conditioned reflex demonstrated on the homeostat. 2762, 5708, 5855 Substitution (mathematical) two simple examples
Summary: Examples of simple substitutions. Mind (individual) meaning of
2753	2754

Summary: On the nature of 'mind'. (An application 2790)
Reflex, conditioned theory of Oddments [24]: Behaviour of an absolute system when one variable is forced off its natural path, 2756.
2755	2756



2757	2758



2759	2760

Summary: Effect of diverting a variable from its path.
The Conditioned Reflex [26]: Conditioned reflex demonstrated on the homeostat, 2747, 2762.
2761	2762

Reflex, conditioned requires non-reinforcement

2763	2764


Summary: Conditioned reflex in ultrastable system regarded as change of resting state. 2855, 5855, 6745 Boolean algebra of relays Relay Boole algebra of Switching Boole algebra of
2765	2766


Summary: Fundamental theory of relays and Boole's algebra.
2767	2768


Summary: Emperical tests of the chance of stability collected to date.
2769	2770


Summary: Chance of stability. 3050 Higher geometry of fields and matrix theory [23]: If a number, positive or negative, is added to all non-diagonal elements, the system becomes unstable when the number is large enough, 2772.
2771	2772

Summary: Wholes whose stability differs entirely from those of the parts.
Equilibrium of [4-point dependency figure]
2773	2774


Summary: Joining unstable systems to form a stable one. Equilibrium of [3-point dependency figure]
2775	2776



2777	2778


Higher geometry of fields and matrix theory [24]: Characteristic equation of MATRIX 2780.
2779	2780


Computing machines Berkeley's book on
2781	2782

Bit (= binary digit) quantities in speaking etc Homeostat new possibility Information quantitative examples
Delay (in substitution) and oscillation Society [30]: Oscillations in fly population and its cause, 2784.
2783	2784

Code types of
Genes as information Information in genes
2785	2786

Summary: Genetic inheritance as information. (See 2806) Summary: Dictionary definitions: Absolute, Behaviour, Break, Critical.
Summary: Dictionary definitions: Disperse, Essential, Field, Independence, Interaction, Iterate, Parameter, Regular.
2787	2788

Summary: Dictionary definitions: Representative, Stability, State, System, Variable.
Activity variety of Group (mathematical) scientific knowledge as Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2789	2790

Constraint and natural law Laws of nature discovery, and adaptation Relation economy of Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
Summary: Discovering a scientific law is like an animal getting one reaction-system adapted to more than one environment. (Summary 2797) Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2791	2792

Summary: A set of numerical values can be, in variables, an operand, and in parameters, an operator. (See next section) Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2793	2794

Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
Summary: The meaning of 'several' environments. (Amplified on 2801) Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2795	2796

Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2797	2798

Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }
2799	2800

Summary: Groups and learning. Science as adaptation Epistemology [3]: An early review of what is meant by 'knowing' { 2790 - 2801 }

2801	2802



2803	2804


Summary: Examples of environments that can be divided into sub-environments.
2805	2806


Adaptation failures
2807	2808



2809	2810



2811	2812



2813	2814

Summary: A list of actions in which some object has to be avoided.
Summary: Some items of information theory. Markov process / chain Stochastic processes Transition probability
2815	2816

Instinct, sex and hormones

2817	2818

Baudot code Information in genes
Summary: Information theory. Pattern (in general) recognition of
2819	2820



2821	2822

Group (mathematical) and pattern Pattern (in general) as group-structure
Summary: Example of pattern and group. Markov process / chain predicting words and letters
2823	2824

Summary: A stochastic process and information. Stochastic processes
Psychiatric applications [9]: What happens when an animal is faced with a painful environment it cannot get away from, 2826.
2825	2826

Pain effect of unescapable pain
Summary: What a mammal does to an environment that cannot be adapted to.
2827	2828

Society [31]: Webb says that systems should not be able to control their own parameters and gives examples. 2829.
Summary: Social systems that can change their own parameters. Personal notes [5]: Clifford Allbutt on a type of man, 2830.
2829	2830

Summary: Allbutt on a type of man. Essential variables sometimes not related to critical states
Critical surface if not related to essential variables Pain patient insensitive to pain
2831	2832

Summary: Description of a child lacking a sense of pain and often injured.
Learning improves with practice
2833	2834



2835	2836



2837	2838

Insight my solution of learning with 'insight' Natural Selection [11]: All improvement in performance is, by my theory, to be obtained only by elimination of the bad. We look, therefore, not for the good to be developed but for the bad to be removed 2839.

2839	2840

Oddments [25]: Learning 'with insight' shown by a modified homeostat. 2841.
Summary: Solution of Harlow's problem.
2841	2842

Expectation effect on learning Unsolved problems [8]: Expectation in the human directs learning: experiment demonstrating this; inexplicable. 2843.
The Conditioned Reflex [27]: When considering the conditioned reflex, consult Woodworth's book, which contains much material extra to Pavlov's, 2844.
2843	2844

Maze maze solving The Conditioned Reflex [28]: Since the decerebrate dog still has abundant dynamic mechanisms, but cannot develop the more intricate reflexes, we can deduce that the intricate reflexes demand specialised mechanisms only to be found in the cortex. 2845, 2858.
Unsolved problems [9]: Transfer of training, from say one hand to the other, is not yet well explained 2846.
2845	2846

Summary: Modern psychology and my theory. Insight Woodworth on
Summary: How to 'prove' a theory of the conditioned reflex. The Conditioned Reflex [29]: Three ways of 'proving' that a theory of the conditioned reflex is true, 2848.
2847	2848

Pattern (in general) recognition of

2849	2850

Environment splitting environment The Multistable System [10]: Experimental method of splitting an environment into parts, 2851.

2851	2852

Effect, law of notes on The Conditioned Reflex [30]: Hebb points out that Pavlov's theory is contradicted by Pavlov's own facts, 2853.
Summary: Extracts from Hebb's book. Personal notes [6]: Handicaps I have been spared, 2854.
2853	2854

Delay (in substitution) and sun-burn The Conditioned Reflex [31]: A mechanism to be considered 2855.
Effect, law of notes on
2855	2856


Summary: A paper to be returned to later. The Conditioned Reflex [28]: Since the decerebrate dog still has abundant dynamic mechanisms, but cannot develop the more intricate reflexes, we can deduce that the intricate reflexes demand specialised mechanisms only to be found in the cortex. 2845, 2858.
2857	2858

Summary: Conditioned reflex without cortex.
Summary: Razran's article. The Conditioned Reflex [32]: Conditioned reflex in Carchesium, 2860.
2859	2860

Summary: A stimulus contains, in addition to its obvious content, derived and integrated components. (Not so much the stimulus contains them as that it will affect the nervous system as if it did) This is the principle: the 'stimulus' contains everything the nervous system can transform it into. Futile, therefore, is it to worry much about the exact details of the presentation. (Continued 2878) Stimulus nature of
Summary: A process, in natural selection, that cannot reach a steady state but moves like the Flying Dutchman. Natural Selection [32]: Predators tend to diverge from the usual appearance. This process has no resting state 2862.
2861	2862

Cause meaning tested

2863	2864



2865	2866



2867	2868



2869	2870



2871	2872



2873	2874



2875	2876

Summary: An empirical test on 30 cases of whether my definition of dependence agrees with what is understood by 'causation'. 5118, 3679, 3709

2877	2878


Summary: A 'stimulus' is not what it seems to be. It is all that happens between the experimenter and the depths of the subject's brain. 2896
2879	2880

Oddments [26]: Stentor has one rule for reacting to light; how this works out 2881.

2881	2882

Reflex and mechanism
Summary: A popular misunderstanding of what 'mechanistic' means.
2883	2884


Pattern (in general) recognition of
2885	2886

Summary: Correspondence of primative animal to machine, and object recognition. Society [32]: Control by target-setting, 2887.
Summary: Social cybernetics. 2898
2887	2888

Summary: Part-environment relation in the Multistable System. 4193 The Multistable System [11]: In the multistable system each arc does not test itself against its environment but the whole against the whole, 2889.
Summary: Example of multistable system. Unsolved problems [10]: A calculus is wanted to handle variables in their activations, 2890.
2889	2890

Reducibility example in pattern The Multistable System [12]: Example, in perception, of the multistable system adapting in parts, 2891.

2891	2892



2893	2894

Reflex reflex behaviour, meaning of
Summary: Comments on the books. Examples of part-functions. Stimulus nature of
2895	2896

Unsolved problems [11]: Cannot the 'experimenter' who injects disturbances be replaced by a more 'natural' phenomenon? 2897.
Society [33]: Can all legislative activities be reduced to the setting of targets? 2898.
2897	2898

Personal notes [7]: My theory breaks up the old concepts and replaces them by new constructions; list of examples, 2899.
Summary: The new point of view.
2899	2900



2901	2902


Summary: Axiomatic basis of the canonical equations, preliminary.
2903	2904


Natural Selection [31]: Fixity itself provides the means by which the fixity can be overthrown. All is movement 2906. Society [34]: Animal populations fluctuate incessously and their characteristics are always on the change. There is no resting state. 2906.
2905	2906

Summary: I have little to learn from what is known of ecological systems.

2907	2908



2909	2910



2911	2912


Summary: Canonical equations of a regular system. See 2922 The Conditioned Reflex [33]: Effect of alternate reinforcement and non- reinforcement: 2914.
2913	2914

Personal notes [8]: I am carefully avoided, 2915.

2915	2916

Environment for survival Part-function Eddington on Quotations [11]: Quotation by Eddington on the distribution of part-functions, 2917.
Absolute system transition test Transition probability
2917	2918



2919	2920

Summary: Defining and testing an absolute system.

2921	2922



2923	2924

Summary: On the canonical equations of a regular system
Gestalt recognition Invariant collected notes Pattern (in general) recognition of
2925	2926



2927	2928


Summary: Some collected notes on pattern or class-recognition, and invariants. The Conditioned Reflex [34]: See notes from Gantt, 2930.
2929	2930

Unsolved problems [12]: The bee that wanders from its hive and returns, 2931.

2931	2932

Summary: A simple form of motor equivalent. (See 2939)

2933	2934


Summary: 'Two-stage' ultrastability.
2935	2936



2937	2938



2939	2940



2941	2942



2943	2944



2945	2946



2947	2948

Summary: Essay on 'motor equivalents.' See also 2989.
DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [3]: How to design and build a multistable system. 2950. Its value basis, 2953. Personal notes [9]: Origin of the second machine 2950.
2949	2950

Summary: A new principle for a new machine.
Summary: Law relating the lingering of the representative point with the density of critical states. Ergodism and ultrastability Ultrastability density of critical states
2951	2952

DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [3]: How to design and build a multistable system. 2950. Its value basis, 2953.
Summary: Elementary features of my new machine. (See 2955) (changed to 3042) Neon lamp Part-function given by value
2953	2954

Essential variables relation to multistable system DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [73]: Another form, with the essential variables' limits separate from the step-functions', 2955.

2955	2956


The Multistable System [100]: Discriminative feedback from essential variables. 2958.
2957	2958

Environment relation to essentail variables Essential variables relation to environment

2959	2960



2961	2962


Neuron maximal value of Psychiatric applications [12]: The value of each unit if used with maximal efficiency, 2964.
2963	2964



2965	2966



2967	2968


The Multistable System [98]: The most efficient way is to make the environment show the specific step-functions that are to be altered 2970.
2969	2970



2971	2972


Summary: Multistable systems, essential variables, dispersion, how to alter step-functions selectively.
2973	2974



2975	2976


Summary: Behaviour of systems of part-functions. The Multistable System [102]: Systems of part-functions, to be stable, must have intrinsic stability. 2978.
2977	2978

DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [7]: DAMS' intrinsic stability, 2979, 2982, 3050.
Summary: Intrinsic stability: general, and of my new machine.
2979	2980


DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [7]: DAMS' intrinsic stability, 2979, 2982, 3050.
2981	2982

Summary: The equations of the new machine, (See next page) Confirmed 2990 DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [8]: DAMS, equations of, 2983. DAMS Mark 13, equations of, 3053.
Summary: Chance in my machine that n active variables are stable. DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [11]: Probability that k active variables in DAMS will be stable, 2984.
2983	2984

Oddments [27]: The intrinsic stability of neurons is high, 2985.
Summary: Intrinsic stability of brain and my new machine. 4154 Oddments [35]: In the brain, the combination of high intrinsic stability with powerful amplification gives speedy action, 2986.
2985	2986

Non-linear systems Stoker on
Group (mathematical) use of characteristics The Multistable System [96]: Dispersion must first occur in a memory-free region if one reaction is not to upset another. 2988.
2987	2988

Summary: Sensory (dispersive) cortex must contain no learning mechanisms. Cortex, visual must contain no memory Receptors and sensory cortex must contain no learning apparatus
Chasing equation of Coding in machine Output as function of input Transformation function-forming
2989	2990

Summary: Canonical equations of systems composed of units each of which tries to make itself (its dial value) some function of the others. (3200) Society [35]: Equations of a society in which each unit tries to maintain itself at some function of its surroundings 2991.
Summary: The system that does not generate information is identical with an absolute system. 3032 Information the noiseless system Oddments [28]: Is the absolute system 'noiseless'? 2992, 3013, 3031, 3060.
2991	2992

Summary: Redundancy and information. Markov process / chain examples Memory sentence with short memory Redundancy organisms prefer highly redundant information Sentence with limited memory The Multistable System [15]: Human beings like information to be highly redundant: does this link with replication in multistable systems? 2993.

2993	2994


Summary: For training, essential variables are not necessary. (See 3003)
2995	2996



2997	2998

Summary: Serial training in the machine. (See 3004)
Summary: Note on the 'principle of continuity'. Continuity principle of continuity
2999	3000

Summary: A display for the new machine. DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [4]: Display for DAMS, 3001.
Summary: A simple and well known example of a system of part-functions. Part-function heap of twigs
3001	3002



3003	3004

Summary: Serial learning. Homeostat equations etc

3005	3006

Summary: Canonical equations of the homeostat.
Effect, law of Skinner demonstrates The Multistable System [13]: Skinner's experiments showing how arcs interact, 3008.
3007	3008


Memory long duration of
3009	3010

The Conditioned Reflex [35]: Extinction is not complete if the conditions are changed 3011.

3011	3012

Summary: Facts on learning. Summary: Absolute system conserves information. Oddments [28]: Is the absolute system 'noiseless'? 2992, 3013, 3031, 3060.
The Multistable System [14]: Discussion of how the multistable system adapts, 3014.
3013	3014

The Multistable System [17]: Adaptive behaviour, in the multistable system, is built out of scrap; it is the environment that enforces the perfection. 3015.
The Multistable System [37]: The multistable system must progress in adaptation by additive increments, like the genes. 3016.
3015	3016



3017	3018

Summary: Multistable system gives partly additive responses. A reaction pattern can be 'strengthened' by noisy variation of parameters. 4155 Noise may improve multistable systems The Multistable System [38]: The deliberate injection of noise into a multistable system may improve its performance in some specific learning. 3019.
Equilibrium 'difficulty' of
3019	3020

Summary: A better meaning for 'difficulty of finding stability.'
The Multistable System [103]: A system of part-functions with k active is as difficult to stabilise as one of k full-functions 3022.
3021	3022



3023	3024

Summary: n part-functions of which k are active at any one time is as easy to stabilise as k, not n, full-functions.
The Multistable System [99]: Relation of the multistable system to its environments. 3082, 3026.
3025	3026

Summary: A multistable system adapting to several environments.

3027	3028



3029	3030

Summary: Necessary and sufficient conditions that a first adaptation should be still present after a second has taken place. Oddments [28]: Is the absolute system 'noiseless'? 2992, 3013, 3031, 3060.
Information the noiseless system
3031	3032


Summary: The noiseless transducer is the absolute system.(Continued 3164)
3033	3034

Summary: Theorem on absolute systems. Continued next page.

3035	3036

Summary: Theorem on absolute systems. Here is the theorem in its final form for proving step-functions... Step-mechanism deduced

3037	3038

Receptors information enters only via receptors Personal notes [10]: The book written 3039.

3039	3040

Summary: Systems of part-functions automatically provide step-function. (N.B. This need further investigation and more rigorous formulation).
DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [6]: DAMS, final placements of neons 3042.
3041	3042

Summary: Mark 13 DAMS works. DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [9]: DAMS has a higher order stability in 'number of neons lit' 3043.
Summary: Stability in the system 'number of neons lit'.
3043	3044



3045	3046


Summary: Joining 'at random'.
3047	3048


Amplifier and stability Equilibrium effect of amplifier DAMS (Dispersive and Multistable System) [7]: DAMS' intrinsic stability, 2979, 2982, 3050.
3049	3050



3050+01	3050+02

These images are reproduced courtesy of The Estate of W. Ross Ashby. Copyright 1972, 2008 © The Estate of W. Ross Ashby